difference between rodents and lagomorphs

- they replace the protective caps on their chromosomes throught their whole lives, therefore preventing cancer and living longer. (b) What is the total number of possible microstates in tossing 5 coins? What is the difference between rodents and mammals? Nair, V.P. Purdy, M.A. These are about the size of their Another difference is that rodents are omnivores and, therefore, eat everything. Rabbits are different from rodents in several ways. Transmission of hepatitis E virus from rabbits to cynomolgus macaques. The infectivity of the orally administered virus was minimal, with only two rabbits displaying fecal shedding and seroconversion [, Interestingly, around 2014, Han et al. Rabbits are also social creatures that enjoy the company of humans or other animals. The molar heat of vaporization of ammonia is 23.3 kJ/mol. Experimental hepatitis E in pregnant rhesus monkeys: Failure to transmit hepatitis E virus (HEV) to offspring and evidence of naturally acquired antibodies to HE.V. ; Chaudhry, M.A. Sayed, I.M. This double-digestion process allows lagomorphs to utilize nutrients missed during the first passage through the digestive tract and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. Their incisors continue to grow throughout their lives, which is also true of rodents and they have a gap between their incisors and the teeth by their cheeks. However, they claimed that the positive viral strand RNA recognition may not have been from the replicating virus since serum also tested positive for viral RNA. The Rodentia (rodent) is the largest group of mammals, with 1500 of them being rodents (out of 4000 mammals). As the trimester continues, the external layer of the embryo merges with the endometrium, and the placenta is formed. However, there was no seroconversion to anti-HEV antibodies in the two rabbits. ; Fritts, Z.; Kenney, S.P. The Rodentia family includes popular and widely recognized species like the mouse and the rat. ; Orosz, S.E. Khuroo, M.S. Williams, T.P. Furukawa, S.; Kuroda, Y.; Sugiyama, A. Additionally, unlike most rodents, rabbits are primarily herbivorous animals that feed on grasses, leaves, seeds, bark, and other plant matter. The most distinguishing characteristic is their teeth. Gardinali, N.R. ; Engle, R.E. Hepatitis E Virus Lifecycle and Identification of 3 Forms of the ORF2 Capsid Protein. Yu, W.; Hao, X.; Li, Y.; Yang, C.; Li, Y.; He, Z.; Huang, F. Vertical transmission of hepatitis E virus in pregnant rhesus macaques. Rabbits, hares, and pikas are distinct from rodents in various respects, for example they have four incisor teeth (rather than two) and they are almost completely herbivorous (whereas many rodents also eat meat). Roberts, R.M. ; Andjaparidze, A.G.; Savinskaya, S.S.; Ketiladze, E.S. The significant genetic manipulations often needed to achieve HEV growth in the mouse make them a very artificial model. Ma, H.; Zheng, L.; Liu, Y.; Zhao, C.; Harrison, T.J.; Ma, Y.; Sun, S.; Zhang, J.; Wang, Y. ; Purdy, M.A. ; Rybczynska, J. Pathogenetic elements of hepatitis E and animal models of HEV infection. The global burden of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 and 2 in 2005. Uncovered forums do not intend to provide veterinary advice. demonstrated that the rabbit HEV strain CHN-BJ-RB14 was able to produce high mortality with the vertical transmission in newborn kits when used to experimentally infect pregnant rabbits. Nearly absentee parents, most lagomorph mothers visit their young to nurse only once a day, and the duration of nursing is very short. Legrand-Abravanel, F.; Kamar, N.; Sandres-Saune, K.; Garrouste, C.; Dubois, M.; Mansuy, J.M. Animal models of human placentationA review. Halbur, P.G. While we provide information resources and canine education, the content here is not a substitute for veterinary guidance. ; Emerson, S.U. This is something that we dont see in lagomorphs. Hatched chicks necropsied at 23 days of age were reported as avian HEV positive for bile and liver samples. ; Thacker, B.J. Molecular datings based on these three genes suggest that the rodent radiation took place at the transition between Paleocene and Eocene. For starters, rabbits are prey animals and can be easily scared, which can lead to them becoming stressed or even injured. ; Wee, A.; Aw, P.P. The two North American pikas and about half of Asian pikas occupy rocky habitat, where they live without making burrows. When to Separate a Kitten from Its Mother, Invasive Rats and Their Influence on Reef Fish, The Giant Golden-Crowned Flying Fox, the World's Largest Pollinator. Both rabbits and rodents each have two lower incisors. ungulates ; Bovids and Equids What is the name for mammals with hooves? ; Purcell, R.H.; Emerson, S.U. Fecal viral RNA shedding and late viremia were observed in mice when intrasplenic inoculation (purified patient fecal suspension, HEV gt3) was administered. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. ; Pierson, F.W. ; Kapikian, A.Z. Napso, T.; Yong, H.E.J. Wong, D.C.; Purcell, R.H.; Sreenivasan, M.A. ; Bradley, D.W. Computer-assisted assignment of functional domains in the nonstructural polyprotein of hepatitis E virus: Delineation of an additional group of positive-strand RNA plant and animal viruses. Active swine HEV infection was seen with each of these three clones when capped RNA transcripts were injected intrahepatically. Six SPF Japanese white rabbits (R1R6) were injected IV with 10, Hence, Wang et al. You are accessing a machine-readable page. 2023. Interestingly, the ovarium ovum demonstrated a positive signal as well [, In 2019, Li et al. If you are a rabbit owner, its important to know what makes rabbits different from other animals commonly kept as pets, so you can provide them with the best possible care. Balayan, M.S. Additionally, not all clinical manifestations are present in pigs infected with gt3 and gt4, and thus, it does not mimic the gross hepatic disease or lead to pregnancy mortality, restricting its usefulness in pathogenicity experiments (, The avian reproductive system is significantly different than mammals which have evolved to allow fetal development in a terrestrial environment without the need for implantation and development in the host [, The single known reservoir for avian HEV is chickens, with reported fecal-oral transmission between flocks. Even though both groups of animals gnaw, lagomorphs do so by moving their jaw from right to left, while rodents move theirs from front to back. To investigate the HEV vertical transmission, newborn kits from four out of six HEV-infected pregnant rabbits (two had miscarriages) were studied. Tian, J.; Shi, R.; Liu, T.; She, R.; Wu, Q.; An, J.; Hao, W.; Soomro, M.H. While rabbits are not rodents, they do make excellent pets, and they do share a lot of similar characteristics to their rodent counterparts. Additionally, rabbits and rodents are both found all over the world. Krawczynski, K.; Meng, X.J. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). From 3 to 20 dpi, tissues were found positive for human HEV RNA in inoculated pigs. Furthermore, tissues that were demonstrated as positive for viral RNA (positive stranded) were also tested for negative strand viral RNA using negative strand-specific RT-PCR, which gave positive results. ; Duncan, R.B. Most rodents are small animals with robust bodies, short limbs, and long tails. demonstrated that rabbits injected with the rHEV isolate CHN-BJ-RB14 had a 9-month fecal shedding of HEV RNA. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. ; Emerson, S.U. Purdy, M.A. ; Haqshenas, G.; Kasorndorkbua, C.; Halbur, P.G. Although great strides have been made in recent years to adapt viruses to cell culture, this field remains behind other viruses that are much easier to replicate efficiently in vitro. ; Yasutomi, Y.; Lara, J.; Khudyakov, Y.; Schofield, D.; Emerson, S.U. positive feedback from the reviewers. PetKeen.com does not intend to provide veterinary advice. Granot, I.; Gnainsky, Y.; Dekel, N. Endometrial inflammation and effect on implantation improvement and pregnancy outcome. Furthermore, liver chemistry summary estimates were not distinct among inoculated and control gilts. Therefore, rabbits are part of the lagomorph order and are not part of the Rodentia ordernot classifying them as rodents. They concluded that avian HEV could enter the egg white (typically 10 mL egg white is present in chicken eggs) with a relatively high dose; however, no virus was detected in the chicks, signifying that avian HEV in eggs could not live through the initial embryonation phase (19 days of embryonation) [, The chicken model was able to evaluate vertical transmission and the causes of infertility, as seen with drops in egg production. ; Vondran, F.W.R. WebDespite all their differences lagomorphs are most closely related to rodents than any other mammals. ; Vieira, Y.R. Although six rabbits were infected with HEV, viremia was observed only in two rabbits, and increases in ALT and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels were roughly two-fold higher than the baseline level that was detected in only one rabbit. See further details. Experiments that compare and contrast the tried-and-true natural HEV infection models, such as swine and non-human primates, which fail to induce enhanced pregnancy mortality, and the rabbit model in which pregnancy mortality was observed might be a key piece to understanding important differences in the virus and host responses leading to HEV pregnancy mortality. ; Surjit, M. Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induced Synthesis of a Novel Viral Factor Mediates Efficient Replication of Genotype-1 Hepatitis E Virus. ; Elvinger, F.; Toth, T.E. reported HEV gt1 replication in the decidua and placenta tissue explants with observable apoptotic cells [, The above-mentioned in vitro studies and ex vivo studies such as JEG-3, PHESCs, and studies use the decidua basalis and fetal placenta, which demonstrate the relative differences in the interferon response, tissue damage and viral replication ability of gt1 and gt3 HEV. ; Theaker, J.; Wittenborn, J.S. ; Meng, X.J. Hepatitis E virus: Animal reservoirs and zoonotic risk. Our mission at Pet Keen is to make the life of you and your pets easier and even more enjoyable. The pig is valuable for the study of different aspects of zoonotically transmitted HEV replication, pathogenesis, and cross-species infection. ; Ouyang, Y.Q. How these initial immunological modulations translate into increased mortality risks of patients infected with HEV during the second and third trimesters is not yet clear-cut with the existing data. This layout of teeth makes it easy for animals like the mouse to gnaw on food and objects. They can also live in trees or bushes, and they live in many more ecosystems. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the ; Chobe, L.P. In contrast, lagomorphs are another group of mammals that have two pairs of ever-growing rootless incisor teeth. ; Toth, T.E. ; Boonstra, A.; Vanwolleghem, T. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 3 infection of human liver chimeric mice as a model for chronic HEV infection. Rodents and lagomorphs form Glires, a group of gnawing mammals with enlarged ever-growing incisors. Unlike our teeth, these incisors dont have roots, and they never stop growing! ; Khudyakov, Y.E. A bicistronic subgenomic mRNA encodes both the ORF2 and ORF3 proteins of hepatitis E virus. Huang, Y.W. https://www.britannica.com/animal/lagomorph. ; Woo, P.C.Y. Cynomolgus monkeys are successfully and persistently infected with hepatitis E virus genotype 3 (HEV-3) after long-term immunosuppressive therapy. Thus, they proposed that xenograft recipients would be on the probable risk list from HEV-infected pig livers or cells [, In 2003, pregnant gilts, their fetuses, and their offspring were studied to dissect the effect of swine HEV. How many photons are contained in a flash of green light (525 nm) that contains 189 kj of energy? Similarly, pigs injected with RNA transcripts from clone pSHEV-1, which had three non-silent mutations in the ORF2 capsid gene, seroconverted late with delayed fecal virus shedding and had unnoticeable viremia [, Thus, subclinical courses of infection were reported in pigs. Yes, there are some dangers associated with keeping rabbits as pets. ; Wasley, A.; Nelson, K.E. They demonstrated that all HEV-infected rabbits (6/6) of group 1 remained non-pregnant, but 9/12 rabbits of group 2 became pregnant. Yadav, K.K. Recent work has suggested the rabbit model in which rHEV gt3 strains can induce mortality of both the doe and kit, along with recapitulating many facets of HEV pathology, makes it currently one of the best models to utilize for dissecting pregnancy mortality. Hepatitis E virus strains in rabbits and evidence of a closely related strain in humans, France. Yang, W.; Chen, S.; Mickael, H.K. ; Ankavay, M.; Bull, A.; Pillez, A.; Abravanel, F.; Helle, F.; et al. Therefore, a rabbits feeding guidelines are much different to those of rodents. ; Guenette, D.K. The authors declare no conflict of interest. A comparison of the histological structure of the placenta in experimental animals. ; Braginsky, D.M. Their pregnancy status was determined by both a rise in serum progesterone and the palpation of embryos performed by professional breeders. 3.2. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030618, Yadav KK, Kenney SP. While this can also occur in rodents, its less pronounced or appears non-existent. Additionally, unlike most rodents, rabbits are primarily herbivorous animals that feed on grasses, leaves, seeds, bark, and other plant matter. Rabbits and hares have long been classified in the order Lagomorpha. ; Wilcox, G.E. interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. ; Resner, K.; Friesland, M.; Khera, T.; Engelmann, M.; et al. Breeding & Reproduction Guide, What Smells Deter Cats from Peeing? The further development of small animal models, such as the BALB/c mouse model, to determine if gt1 or gt2 HEV pathology can be recapitulated is warranted, and provide hope for further small animal model development in the HEV pregnancy mortality field. The size of the placenta and length of gestation (114 days) are more similar to humans than many of the other proposed models. While we provide information resources and canine education, the content here is not a substitute for veterinary guidance. The only living families in the lagomorph order are rabbits and hares, and pikas. Surprisingly, HEV gt1 demonstrated higher susceptibility to chimpanzees in comparison to rhesus and cynomolgus macaques. Outbreak of hepatitis E in a low income urban community in Bangladesh. Izopet, J.; Dubois, M.; Bertagnoli, S.; Lhomme, S.; Marchandeau, S.; Boucher, S.; Kamar, N.; Abravanel, F.; Guerin, J.L. Early evolution of rodents and lagomorphs. What is the molar heat of condensation of ammonia? study and demonstrated that the rabbits, which injected IV with rHEV strains (GenBank No: JQ065065, JQ065068) had comparable clinical manifestations of acute hepatitis E. Furthermore, the authors also administered the rHEV strains in 15 rabbits orally, in addition to IV inoculation. They noted that HEV was capable of completing its viral life cycle in placental-derived cells (JEG-3). ; Emerson, S.U. How does the naked mole rat not get cancer and live so long? ; Chadha, M.S. Beniwal, M.; Kumar, A.; Kar, P.; Jilani, N.; Sharma, J.B. Required fields are marked *. In contrast, the control groups experienced no miscarriage (0/3) or death (0/3). All rights reserved. Zhao, C.; Ma, Z.; Harrison, T.J.; Feng, R.; Zhang, C.; Qiao, Z.; Fan, J.; Ma, H.; Li, M.; Song, A.; et al. In contrast, the smaller pikas have shorter, rounded ears, no external tail, and less-well-developed hind limbs associated with scampering locomotion. demonstrated miscarriage, non-pregnancy, and uterine damage in HEV gt4 (KM01)-infected BALB/c mice after copulation with healthy males. Xia, H.; Wahlberg, N.; Belak, S.; Meng, X.J. Small mammals such as rodents and lagomorphs exhibit extremely rapid foetal and neonatal growth rates and thus already have very short gestation periods (Swihart 1984; Wilson et al. ; et al. Naturally occurring animal models of human hepatitis E virus infection. Chickens are not vulnerable to human or swine HEV, and the detected symptoms of HEV-positive chickens do not match with the clinical development seen in humans. Of course, its lack of fat means you need to take caution when you prepare it. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030618, Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals, You can make submissions to other journals. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled. ; Brito, C.; Alves, P.M. Bioengineered liver cell models of hepatotropic infections. ; Seddik, M.I. Liver, lymph node, small intestine, and colon tissues demonstrated a longer duration of HEV replication when compared to any other tissues. They recommended that the antibodies against HEV that were identified in these newborns were probably induced by infection rather than passively acquired from their HEV-infected mothers because the seroconversion to anti-HEV antibodies occurred at 3 months of age in those newborns. The only living families in the ; Meng, X.-J. Inflammatory exudates and hemorrhages were apparent upon histopathological examination, suggesting that severe inflammatory responses were seen in the uterus of terminated mice (middle pregnancy). The endocrine function of human placenta: An overview. We use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website. Chimpanzees, cynomolgus, and rhesus macaques were used to compare HEV infection. While mice have been a workhorse model system for demonstrating many complex biological functions, more study is needed to determine if a truly representative HEV pregnancy model can be established in these animals. (a) The model should be susceptible to genotypes 14. Rabbits have a hemodichorial and bidiscoid type of placenta [, In 2010, forty-two specific pathogen-free (SPF) rabbits were divided into 11 groups, with 1 group acting as the negative control in the first-ever pathogenesis study. The, Role of Placental, Hormones in Mediating Maternal Adaptations to Support Pregnancy and Lactation. HEV, in general, has been a difficult pathogen to understand in the laboratory setting. How was law and order maintained in Anglo-Saxon England? ; Leung, V.; Nazli, A.; Zahoor, M.A. Shynlova, O.; Nadeem, L.; Zhang, J.; Dunk, C.; Lye, S. Myometrial activation: Novel concepts underlying labor. Hepatitis E virus ORF3 is a functional ion channel required for release of infectious particles. Schumacher, A. They superficially resemble rodents and in older classifications were even included in the order Rodentia, as both possess a set of continuously growing incisor teeth. ; Meng, X.J. Hormones and the Endocrine, System: Textbook of Endocrinology, Help us to further improve by taking part in this short 5 minute survey, Investigating Catheter-Related Infections in Southern Benin Hospitals: Identification, Susceptibility, and Resistance Genes of Involved Bacterial Strains, Liver Transaminases in Pediatric Adenovirus InfectionA Five-Year Study in Two Major Reference Centers from Romania, https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030618, Emerging Pathogens Causing Acute Hepatitis, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. However, almost 30 percent of all lagomorph species are recognized as endangered species, including four pikas, seven hares, seven cottontails, and seven other rabbits. ; Prasad, S.R. Ollie, originally from the USA, holds his master's degree in wildlife biology and moved to Australia to pursue his career and passion but has found a new love for working online and writing about animals of all types. ; Lim, S.G.; Dan, Y.Y. Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. ; Khashbah, M.Y. They confirmed the occurrence of positive-strand HEV RNA in many tissues by RT-PCR. All lagomorphs are herbivores, which has shaped features of skull and dentition. Rodents are a mammalian class that includes mice, rats, squirrels, and beavers. HEV RNA was not detected in the lung, kidney, and heart tissues of any of the rabbits, either infected or not infected. Along with dentition, the differences in rodent and lagomorphs include: Rodents have a single pair of incisors in their upper and lower jaws, both of equal size. Notably, there was a smaller number of fetuses in the HEV =-infected group in comparison to the negative control group [early (35 fetuses), middle (3 fetuses), or late (61 fetuses)]. These systems can be created from human cells and tissues and mimic in vivo phenomena such as the innate immune response to viral infection and how pregnancy hormones might contribute to infection outcomes. ; Chadha, M.S. ; Krawczynski, K.; Nordenfelt, E. Acute sporadic viral hepatitis in Ethiopia: Causes, risk factors, and effects on pregnancy. Other differences between rabbits and rodents include their physical appearance, behavior, and range. Meng, X.J. Pavio, N.; Meng, X.-J. ; Yarbough, P.O. Chirohepevirus from Bats: Insights into Hepatitis E Virus Diversity and Evolution. No special Furthermore, newborn rabbits that were born to vaccinated individuals were free of HEV in comparison to the survived individuals from HEV-infected females that demonstrated HEV infection [, Rabbits are small animal models that can be used for cross-species infection, pathogenesis, pregnancy as well as vaccine studies. WebAbstract. ; Emerson, S.U. Several studies are ongoing to establish an animal model mimicking the HEV clinical manifestations seen in humans, to understand the pregnancy-related pathology, and to identify the novel characteristics of HEV replication. Human pregnancy is a complex biological process that includes the interplay of several host organ systems resulting in the development of a fertilized egg into a fully formed baby, which is delivered via live birth over the course of approximately 266 days. ; Guenette, D.K. Interestingly, even after the disappearance of viremia, they were able to detect positive-strand viral RNA between 20 and 27 dpi in swine HEV-inoculated pigs and at 27 dpi in human HEV-inoculated pigs. Rabbits and rats come from two different families and cant interbreed. ; Mubarik, M.M. Species of rodents include: Although rabbits share a lot of characteristics with various members of the Rodentia class, they are not rodents. You seem to have javascript disabled. ; Fichorova, R.N. Gadsby, J.E. Aghaeepour, N.; Ganio, E.A. RT-PCR results for fecal, bile, and liver samples were negative for avian HEV infection. Hepatitis E and pregnancy: Understanding the pathogenesis. Sakaguchi, S. Regulatory T cells: Key controllers of immunologic self-tolerance. Takaki, H.; Oshiumi, H.; Shingai, M.; Matsumoto, M.; Seya, T. Development of mouse models for analysis of human virus infections. Which two familys represent over half of all rodent species? ; Keyes, P.L. Sridhar, S.; Teng, J.L.L. Seroconversion to anti-HEV antibodies occurred at 37 wpi except for one rabbit that demonstrated no seroconversion. The lengthy viremia and fecal shedding in rHEV-infected rabbits resembled human chronic HEV infection. The back side of the incisors has no enamel. However, the significant differences in physiology from mammals and resistance to infection with mammalian HEV make the avian HEV model difficult for its use for pathogenesis studies and to stand as an ideal model for HEV pregnancy mortality (, Although not a complete animal model system, placenta cell-derived models, including organoids, can be given consideration for modeling HEV pathogenesis during pregnancy. The other Asian pikas are burrowers that live in steppe and meadow habitats. The course of hepatitis E virus infection in pigs after contact-infection and intravenous inoculation. Finally, rabbits are known for their reproductive abilities and can give birth to as many as 12 babies at a time. The timing of the origin and diversification of rodents remains controversial, due to conflicting results from molecular clocks and paleontological data. Interestingly, pre-exposure to the HEV 239 vaccine before copulation resulted in no HEV infections. Hormonal factors throughout pregnancy have been suggested to play a significant role in HEV mortality [, In the 1980s, non-A, non-B hepatitis (NANB) was identified to be HEV [, HEV has recently undergone classification updates and continues to evolve with the discovery of new HEV strains. ; Chiu, T.H. Overall, while rabbits can make good pets for the right person, they are not suitable for everyone and should be approached with care and consideration. Cossaboom, C.M. Between 10, In 2012, Cheng et al. ; Pepe, G.J. ; Burney, M.I. ; Vilhena, L.S. Brain Infection by Hepatitis E Virus Probably via Damage of the Blood-Brain, Barrier Due to Alterations of Tight Junction Proteins. They found that two/six pregnant rabbits had a miscarriage while three of the remaining four HEV-infected pregnant rabbits died. ; Ticehurst, J.; London, W.; Purcell, R.H. ELISA for Antibody to Hepatitis E virus (HEV) Based on Complete Open-Reading Frame-2 Protein Expressed in Insect Cells: Identification of HEV Infection in Primates. Rabbits, however, are not a part of the rodent family and are, in fact, a member of the Lagomorph order of animals. Written and verified by the vet Eugenio Fernndez Surez. ; Schulz, L.C. We use cookies on our website to ensure you get the best experience. ; Nicand, E.; Guerin, P.J. Two pigs from group 1 (18 pigs, IV inoculations of swine HEV), group 2 (19 pigs, IV inoculations of human HEV, US-2 strain), and group 3 (17 pigs, uninoculated controls) were necropsied at 3,7,14, 20, 27, and 55 dpi. Rodents can be found on all continents except Antarctica. ; Cossaboom, C.M. ; Purcell, R.H. Hence, they confirmed that HEV infection in newborn kits from infected mothers supported the vertical transmission of HEV. ; Mattei, A.; Gojnic, M.; Gerli, S. Progesterone and pregnancy. While the tissue host tropism of HEV can be identified and innate immune responses characterized cells in a dish, these were unable to provide a complete picture of the human bodys response to HEV infection. In fact, the differences in their teeth are one of the major causes of ; Xia, N.; Zheng, Z.; Feng, Z. Moreover, they demonstrated the recovery of uterine layers and improvement in fertility after the clearance of HEV from female BALB/c mice [, Although the above-mentioned data demonstrates BALB/c mice as suitable animal models for HEV vertical transmission studies, the lack of maternal mortality in these mice makes them slightly deviate from the clinical manifestation seen in humans (.

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